|
The history of sicence aned technology in India dates to ancient times. Among the basic fields of science pursued in India were Ayurveda, Astronomy and Mathematics. Indian civilization begins at Mehrgarh (7000–3300 BCE), where graineries, and mud brick houses were constructed. Farming, metal working, flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and dentistry, are also known to the people of Mehrgarh. The Indus Valley civilization yields evidence of hydrography, metrology and sewage collection and disposal being practiced by its inhabitants. Great attention to mathematics is visible during the Vedic Period (1500 BCE - 400 BCE), which also witnesses the first inquiry being made into the field of linguistics is the 5th century BCE scholar Panini. Construction of Stepwells and stupas, use of diamond as a gemstone, and plastic surgery operations are visible during later periods. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1200 CE), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II. Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the decimal number system, zero, negative numbers, arithmetic, and algebra. Of note is the advent of Islam, which helped diffuse of Indian and Persian irrigation technologies, leading to advanced irrigation systems aiding the growth of medieval material culture. Weavers from Central Asia were employed by the 15th century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin. The final historical period of Indian science and technology occurs during the British Raj, which, facilitated a number of Indian scholars to enter prestigious foreign institutions in its ultimate aim of producing worthy civil and administrative service candidates. Mehrgarh and early Indus Valley civilization (7000–3300 BCE) Inhabitants of Mehrgarh (7000–3300 BCE) lived in mud brick houses, stored their grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large basket containers with bitumen.[2] Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization by the 5th millennium BCE - 4th millennium BCE. They also cultivated six-row barley, einkorn and emmer wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500 BC to 2600 BC) put much effort into crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal working.[2] The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BC. Mehrgarh has yielded evidence of dentistry being practiced as far back as 7000 BCE. This earliest form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead craftsmen. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective.[19] John F. Robyt (1998) locates the two most probable origins of sugarcane cultivation as the South Pacific or North East India, as early as 10,000 BC and 6,000 BC respectively. Further archaeological evidence associates sugar with the Indus valley. Alcoholic beverages were in use between 3000 BCE - 2000 BCE. Mature Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1500 BCE) Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements which further made use of drainage and sewers. Sophisticated irrigation and storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including the artificial reservoirs at Girnar in 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE. By 2800 BCE, private bathrooms, located on the ground floor, were found in nearly all the houses of the Indus Valley Civilization. Pottery pipes in walls allowed drainage of water and there was, in some case, the provision of a crib for sitting “Western-style” toilets were made from bricks using toilet seats made of wood on top. The waste was then transmitted to drainage systems. Large scale sanitary sewer systems were in place by 2700 BCE. The drains were 7-10 feet wide and 2 feet below ground level. The sewage was then led into cesspools, built at the intersection of two drains, which had stairs leading to them for periodic cleaning. Plumbing using earthenware plumbing pipes with broad flanges for easy joining with asphalt to stop leaks was in place by 2700 BCE. The world’s first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering. This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships. The inhabitants of the Indus valley developed a sophisticated system of standardization, using weights and measures, evident by the excavations made at the Indus valley sites. This technical standardization enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction. Calibration was also found in measuring devices alongwith multiple subdivisions in case of some devices. The earliest available swords of copper discovered from the Harappan sites date back to 2300 BCE. Swords have been recovered in archaeological findings throughout the Ganges-Jamuna Doab region of India, consisting of bronze but more commonly copper. Vedic period (1500 BCE - 400 BCE) The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large numbers.[] By the time of the last Veda, the Yajurvedasaṃhitā (1200-900 BCE), numbers as high as 10 were being included in the texts. For example, the mantra (sacrificial formula) at the end of the annahoma (“food-oblation rite”) performed during the aśvamedha (“horse sacrifice”), and uttered just before-, during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a hundred to a trillion. The Satapatha Brahmana (9th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras. Baudhayana (c. 8th century BCE) composed the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, the best-known Sulba Sutra, which contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples, such as: (3,4,5), (5,12,13), (8,15,17), (7,24,25), and (12,35,37) as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square: “The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square.” It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a rectangle): “The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together.” Baudhayana gives a formula for the square root of two. Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during 1300–1000 BC. Diverse specimens of swords have been discovered in Fatehgarh, where there are several varieties of hilt.[] These swords have been variously dated to periods between 1700-1400 BCE, but were probably used more extensively during the opening centuries of the 1st millennium BCE.[31] Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements from the period between 1800 BC - 1200 BC.[] Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BC by employing the method of radio carbon dating.[33] Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology’s inception may be placed earlier.[32] In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country. The study of linguistics in India dates back at least two and one-half millennia.[] During the 5th century BCE, Indian scholar Panini had made several discoveries in the fields of phonetics, phonology, and morphology. Metal currency was minted in India before 5th century BCE, Early coins of India (400 BCE - 100 CE) were made of silver and copper, and bore animal and plant symbols on them. Post Maha Janapadas period (400 BCE - 200 CE) The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions the construction of dams and bridges. The use of suspension bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible in India by about the 4th century. The stupa (3rd century BCE), the precursor of the pagoda and torii, is constructed. Rock-cut step wells in India date from 200-400 CE. Subsequently, the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and construction of stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) takes place.[] Indigo is used as a dye in India, which was also the earliest major center for its production and processing. The Indigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India. Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product. The cashmere wool fiber is also known as pashm or pashmina for its use in the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India. The woolen shawls made from wool in Kashmir region of India find written mention between 3rd century BC and the 11th century CE. Jute is cultivated in India. Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, and the earliest reference of candied sugar come from India. By the beginning of the Common Era, glass was being used for ornaments and casing in South Asia. Contact with the Greco-Roman world added newer techniques, and Indians artisans mastered several techniques of glass molding, decorating and coloring by the early centuries of the Common Era.[] Satavahana period of India further reveals short cylinders of composite glass, including those displaying a lemon yellow matrix covered with green glass. Wootz originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[48] Wootz steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India even before the Christian era. During the Imperial Guptas, the Indian court physician Sushruta was performs plastic surgery operations. The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE). Early diamonds used as gemstones originated in India. Golconda served as an important center for diamonds in central India. Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe. Early references to diamonds in India come from Sanskrit texts.[53] The Arthashastra mentions diamond trade in India. Among other scholars of this period who contributed to mathematics, the most notable is Pingala (fl. 300-200 BCE), a musical theorist who authored a Sanskrit treatise on prosody. There is evidence that in his work on the enumeration of syllabic combinations, Pingala stumbled upon both the Pascal triangle and Binomial coefficients, although he did not have knowledge of the Binomial theorem itself. The first description of binary numbers is also found in the works of Pingala.[] The use of negative numbers was known in early India, and their role in situations like mathematical problems of debt was understood. Consistent and correct rules for working with these numbers were formulated. The diffusion of this concept led the Arab intermediaries to pass it to Europe. Early Common Era - High Middle Ages (200 CE - 1300 CE) The decimal number system originated in India. Other cultures discovered a few features of this number system but the system, in its entirely, was compiled in India, where it attained coherence and completion. By the 9th century CE, this complete number system had existed in India but several of its ideas were transmitted to to China and the Islamic world before that time. The concept of 0 as a number, and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India. In India, practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number by the 9th century CE, even in case of division. Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598–668) was able to find (integral) solutions of Pell’s equation.[58] The earliest conceptual design of a perpetual motion machine dates back to 1150, by an Indian mathematician-astronomer, Bhaskara II. He described a wheel that he claimed would run forever. The origins of the spinning wheel are unclear but the device was probably invented in India. The device certainly reached Europe from India by the 14 century CE. Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century CEThis cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made, in form foot powered gins. The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the “wooden-worm-worked roller”. This mechanical device was, in some parts of india, driven by water power. Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 , for obtaining technology for sugar-refining. Each mission returned with different results on refining sugar. European scholar Francesco I reproduced a number of Indian maps in his magnum opus La Cartografia Antica dell India. Out these maps, two have been reproduced using a manuscript of Lokaprakasa, originally compiled by the polymath Ksemendra (Kashmir, 11th century CE), as a source. The other manuscript, used as a source by Francesco I, is titled Samgrahani.
 |
Subscribe to this comment's feed
